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肺癌:维生素D、褪黑素、大豆异黄酮

时间:2021-02-26 10:19 阅读:659 来源:朴诺健康研究院

目  录

一、概述

二、引言

三、背景

四、危险因素

五、体征和病症

六、诊断和癌症分期

七、传统治疗

八、新兴的和新颖的治疗策略

九、饮食和生活方式注意事项

十、中西医结合干预

十一、参考文献


一、概述

摘要和速览

  1. 当肺部细胞生长失控时,就会发生肺癌。肺癌有很多种,有些比其他的生长得快。

  2. 在本方案中,您将了解肺癌的类型以及如何诊断和治疗。你还将了解到关于新兴的和新颖的,有希望的治疗方法研究,以及你能做出哪些饮食和生活方式的改变,这些可能有助于保持肺细胞的健康。

  3. 多项研究表明,补充黄芪提取物可以补充常规肺癌治疗。

肺癌是导致癌症相关死亡的主要原因,在美国,肺癌导致的死亡人数占癌症死亡人数的四分之一以上。癌症在扩散前被早期诊断的患者,5年生存率为52%;然而,只有15%的肺癌在这个阶段被诊断出来。总的来说,小细胞肺癌的5年生存率(6%)低于非小细胞肺癌(18%)。

研究表明,维生素D、褪黑素和大豆异黄酮等综合干预措施可影响肺癌患者的生存率。

病因和危险因素

  1. 吸烟和烟草烟雾,约85%的肺癌与吸烟有关

  2. 如果直系亲属或兄弟姐妹患有肺癌,则肺癌风险增加50-80%

  3. 肺气肿风险增加2.44倍,慢性支气管炎风险增加1.47倍

  4. 接触石棉、柴油机废气、空气污染、杀虫剂和重金属与肺癌的发生有关

注意:最近的证据表明电子烟会损害肺部。在一项研究中,从不吸烟者和经常吸烟者对电子烟的反应显示气道阻力显著增加。实验室研究还表明,电子烟中的尼古丁蒸气增强了已经含有突变的肺上皮组织的“攻击性”行为。

体征和病症

  1. 胸部不适或疼痛,持续咳嗽,呼吸困难,喘息,痰带血

  2. 食欲不振,无法解释的体重减轻

  3. 疲劳

  4. 声音嘶哑,吞咽困难

  5. 面部和/或颈部静脉肿胀

诊断和肺癌的分期

许多测试和诊断工具可用于识别肺癌并确定其进展程度,包括:

  1. 成像:X射线、磁共振成像(MRI)、胸部计算机断层扫描(CT)和正电子发射断层扫描(PET)

  2. 分期:癌症的程度取决于肿瘤大小、癌细胞是否扩散到附近淋巴结以及是否发生了其他转移事件。

注:对于有30包/年吸烟史的吸烟者和大多数55-80岁的之前吸烟的吸烟者,建议每年进行低剂量计算机断层扫描(LDCT)筛查。

传统治疗

肺癌的治疗取决于癌症的亚型及其分期,但可以包括手术、化疗和放疗。

新兴的和新颖的治疗策略

  1. 有几个处于后期试验阶段的疫苗, 

  2. 循环肿瘤细胞(CTC)定量分析计数CTCs在病人的血液里的数量。

  3. 二甲双胍,研究表明使用二甲双胍的2型糖尿病患者患肺癌的风险显著降低

饮食和生活方式的改变

  1. 戒烟

  2. 控制血糖水平,因为研究发现患有糖尿病和肺癌的患者的预后更差

  3. 坚持地中海饮食可降低肺癌风险

中西医结合干预

  1. 维生素D:一项流行病学研究发现,在夏季接受手术的肺癌患者,维生素D摄入量较高与那些在冬季接受手术且维生素D摄入量较低(每日少于239国际单位,无维生素D补充剂)的患者相比,每天超过596国际单位的患者的无复发生存期和总生存期显著延长。 

  2. 褪黑素:一项对肺癌患者的研究发现,每晚接受褪黑素和化疗治疗的患者与单独接受化疗的患者相比,5年的生存率和肿瘤消退率明显高于单独接受化疗的患者。

  3. 大豆异黄酮:一项针对女性肺癌患者的研究发现,诊断前饮食中大豆制品和异黄酮摄入量最高(平均每天31.4克大豆食品和53.5毫克异黄酮)的患者在2年随访时的死亡率比摄入中位数(每天平均16克大豆食物和26.5毫克异黄素)的妇女低81%。

  4. 维生素E:一项针对男性吸烟者的大型研究发现,血液中α-生育酚含量最高的20%人群患肺癌的风险比那些血液中α-生育酚含量最低的20%人群低19%。

  5. 锌:一项对肺癌患者与同等数量的健康人进行比较的研究发现,饮食中锌摄入量最高(每天超过12毫克)的人患肺癌的风险降低43%。


二、引言

肺癌是癌症相关死亡的主要原因,是美国癌症死亡人数的四分之一(ACS 2013a)。它占所有癌症诊断的13-14%,是男性和女性第二常见的恶性肿瘤(不包括皮肤癌)(ACS 2013a;ACS 2014a)。然而,直到20世纪,肺癌还是一种相对罕见的疾病。随着大规模吸烟的出现,这种情况发生了变化,吸烟仍然是当今肺癌的主要病因(Proctor 2001;A.D.A.M.2013a;Hill 2003;OSH 2006)。

肺癌主要有两种类型:非小细胞肺癌(NSCLC)和小细胞肺癌(SCLC)。大多数肺癌患者患有非小细胞肺癌,其生长和扩散通常较慢,且5年总生存率优于小细胞肺癌(NCI 2013a;NCI 2013c;a.D.a.M.2013a;ACS 2013a)。

肺癌的主要治疗方法与大多数实体瘤相同:手术、化疗和放疗。其适用性和有效性取决于癌症的诊断阶段、亚型分类和遗传特征(A.D.A.M.2013a;Hofmann 2006;Ellis 2012)。

尽管在过去的30年中,由于更好的手术技术和治疗,肺癌的1年生存率有所提高,但所有阶段的5年生存率加起来仍然相对较低,只有16%左右。癌症在扩散前被早期诊断的患者,5年生存率为52%;然而,只有15%的肺癌在这个阶段被诊断出来。总的来说,小细胞肺癌的5年生存率(6%)低于非小细胞肺癌(18%)(ACS 2013a;Dela Cruz 2011;American lung Association 2014c;Youlden 2008;NCI 2014d)。

目前正在努力改善肺癌患者的预后。对目前和以前吸烟者进行常规筛查的建议,强调个体化基因组药物和靶向治疗,以及开发高度特异性药物,重点是破坏恶性组织,同时保留健康细胞,这些都是对抗肺癌的关键步骤(Schabath 2014;Moyer 2013;Ma 2013;Clinical Lung Cancer Genome Project 2013;Heuvers,Hegmans 2012;Heuvers,Aerts 2012;Wouters 1999;Nascimento 2014)。

在本方案中,您将了解肺癌和肺癌治疗的基本原理、新兴和新颖的治疗策略,如癌症疫苗,以及科学研究的中西医结合干预措施,这些干预措施可能靶向针对导致肺癌的一些潜在机制。


三、背景

肺癌往往发展缓慢,但也有一些极具侵袭性的肺癌,生长和转移迅速(Hayabuchi 1983;Lozic 2010;Cooper 2000;Alberts 2002)。健康的肺组织转化为癌组织发生在细胞水平,因为DNA受到各种可能机制的破坏,包括环境致癌物,如烟草烟雾中发现的致癌物,癌症发展的可能性取决于每个人的遗传倾向。长期的DNA损伤最终导致控制肺组织细胞生长的信号通路中断。一旦控制细胞生长的基因和途径被完全破坏,恶性肿瘤就会出现(Horn 2013a;Sato 2007)。

研究人员已经发现了许多驱动肺癌发展的分子变化,其中许多已成为旨在摧毁癌细胞或阻止其生长的生物药物的靶点。有几种基因突变与肺癌相关,但有两种突变研究得特别充分(Davidson2013;Horn2013a):

  1. KRAS–KRAS基因突变主要发生在患有腺癌的吸烟者中;

  2. EGFR–EGFR基因突变在从不吸烟的患者、女性和亚洲人中更为常见。

这两种基因都控制细胞生长,因此这些基因的突变会导致细胞快速持续地生长和分裂,最终导致肿瘤形成(Horn 2013b;Bacchi 2012;Martinsson 2010;Sunaga 2011;Yoon 2010)。

肺癌的类型

肺癌的类型包括非小细胞肺癌(NSCLC),这是最普遍的;小细胞癌(SCLC),它占美国肺癌的15-20%,以及一些罕见的神经内分泌肿瘤占不到5%的病例(Horn2013a;梅奥诊所2014;NCI2014e;Skirecki2009)。非小细胞肺癌和SCLC根据其病理进一步分类(NCI2013a;NCI2013c;Horn2013b)。癌症的类型有助于确定治疗以及预后。

非小细胞肺癌。非小细胞肺癌(NSCLC)是最常见的肺癌类型,起源于支气管表面上皮或支气管粘液腺(Bunn 2008;O'Hanlon 2013)。它的生长和扩散速度比小细胞肺癌慢。非小细胞肺癌的5年生存率为18%,而小细胞肺癌的5年生存率为6%(ACS 2013a;A.D.A.M.2013a)。

腺癌。腺癌是美国和日本最常见的肺癌类型。它主要发生在吸烟者,虽然不吸烟者也可能发展这种形式。这种类型通常发生在肺中带和肺周围。固体和微乳头状腺癌(许多小肿瘤位点)患者往往预后较差(Horn2013a)。

鳞状细胞癌。鳞状细胞癌与吸烟密切相关(Herbst,2008),通常发生在肺的中央部分(Horn,2013年a)。

大细胞癌。大细胞癌通常发生在肺周围,占肺癌的10%以下(Horn2013a)。

小细胞肺癌。小细胞肺癌(SCLC)来源于肺部的神经内分泌细胞,有时被称为燕麦细胞癌,因为癌细胞呈扁平状和小椭圆形(O'Hanlon,2013)。SCLC占肺癌病例的15-20%(Skirecki,2009年)。SCLC比NSCLC更具侵袭性,细胞分裂更迅速,尽管它对化疗和放疗的反应通常更敏感。然而,治疗后转移和复发的可能性都很高,总体生存率很低(ACS 2013a; A.D.A.M. 2013a; NCI 2013c)。

肺神经内分泌肿瘤。小细胞肺癌是一种神经内分泌癌,还有三种不太常见的神经内分泌肿瘤类型:典型类癌、非典型类癌和大细胞神经内分泌癌。前两种情况在吸烟者中不太常见,一般攻击性较低,而后一种情况在吸烟者中更常见,预后更差(Horn 2013b;ACS 2013b;Rekhtman 2010)。

在不吸烟者中的肺癌

从不吸烟者的肺癌发病率因性别、种族和地理位置而异。在亚洲,约40%被诊断为肺癌的女性从不吸烟,而在西方国家,约10%被诊断为肺癌的男性从不吸烟(Pallis 2013a;Larsen 2011)。2012年发表的一项研究发现,亚洲从不吸烟女性患肺癌的风险增加与该人群中普遍存在的三种基因改变有关——10号染色体上的一种突变和6号染色体上的两种独立突变(Lan 2012)。从不吸烟者的肺癌通常表现出与吸烟者不同的突变和分子变化(Larsen 2011)。

从不吸烟者中肺癌的危险因素包括二手烟暴露、激素和遗传因素、空气污染、氡暴露和职业性致癌物暴露(Pallis 2013a;Brennan 2011;CDC 2006;Kligerman 2011;Cohen 1995)。被诊断为肺癌的不吸烟者患腺癌的可能性更大。一些报告显示,与吸烟者相比,存活率更高(Pallis 2013a)。

在肺癌的病理生理学和生物学方面,从不吸烟的患者与曾经吸烟的患者有着显著的差异。一项小型研究发现,与从不吸烟者相比,吸烟者患肺癌的基因突变率平均高出10倍(Govindan,2012年)。此外,两组的比较显示,突变谱存在显著差异。例如,表皮生长因子受体(EGFR)的过度表达在从不吸烟者的肺癌中更为常见(Pallis 2013a;Larsen 2011)。

除了与吸烟相关的肺癌和与吸烟无关的肺癌的基因谱存在差异外,这些肿瘤在肺部的位置也存在差异。吸烟相关的癌症病变,无论是小细胞肺癌还是非小细胞肺癌,最常发生在肺部的中央气道,而从不吸烟者的大多数肺癌发生在远端气道(Usuda 2010;Gonzalez 2012;Samet 2009;Larsen 2011;Brambilla 2009)。


四、危险因素

吸烟

尽管肺癌的病因和危险因素多种多样,但没有比吸烟更明确的定义了,吸烟与大约85%的肺癌有关(Larsen,2011年)。总体而言,吸烟者患肺癌的可能性是不吸烟者的25倍(Larsen 2011;ACS 2013a;ACS 2014c)。然而,在美国,超过一半的新诊断肺癌发生在已经戒烟的人身上,这证明了烟草烟雾造成的长期损害(Larsen 2011)。接触二手烟的人也会增加患肺癌的风险;一项研究估计,接触非典型高浓度二手烟的工人死于肺癌的风险可能会增加13倍(NCI 2014e;Mayo Clinic 2014;O'Hanlon 2013;Siegel 2003)。

据报道,烟草烟雾含有6000多种化学物质,其中70多种已被证明具有致癌作用。其中包括砷、苯、苯并(a)芘、镉和甲醛(Sanders 2008; Health Canada 2011)。当吸入时,这些化合物会导致DNA损伤,导致参与控制细胞生长的基因突变(Landi 2006)。

幸运的是,长期戒烟可降低肺癌风险;10年不吸烟后,患肺癌的可能性降低30–50%(NCI 2013d)。然而,目前尚不清楚以前吸烟者但现在戒烟了的患者是否比确诊时仍吸烟的患者预后更好。然而,很明显,确诊后戒烟可以改善结果(Parsons 2010)。

电子烟

近年来,电子烟已成为传统香烟的流行替代品(CDC 2013a;CDC 2013b)。倡导者声称电子烟不仅比普通香烟更安全,而且可以作为戒烟工具(American Lung Association 2014a; Paradise 2013)。

尽管声称是安全的,但最近的证据表明电子烟会损害肺部。来自希腊的研究人员评估了电子烟对32名志愿者的影响,其中8人从不吸烟。一些人有健康的肺,其他人有哮喘或慢性阻塞性肺疾病(COPD)。在使用一支电子烟10分钟后,从不吸烟者和经常吸烟者对电子烟的反应表现出气道阻力的显著增加,尽管肺部疾病患者没有变化(MNT 2013)。在另一项研究中,加州大学的研究人员进行了实验室研究,结果显示尼古丁蒸汽增强了已经含有肿瘤抑制基因P53或KRAS基因突变的肺上皮组织的“侵袭性”行为(AACR 2014)。其他研究发现,电子烟排放的潜在有害污染物可能会影响使用者和那些通过二手蒸汽吸入毒素的人(Schober 2013)。

尽管许多研究结果表明电子烟至少在某种程度上对戒烟有帮助,但并非所有的证据都支持这一观点。在对电子烟帮助吸烟者戒烟的能力做出结论性陈述之前,还需要进行更多的研究(Kasza 2013;Etter 2014;Bullen 2013;Siegel 2011)。

家族史和遗传倾向

几项大型研究发现,遗传基因变异会增加患肺癌的风险,其中一些也会增加尼古丁依赖的风险(Larsen,2011年)。研究发现,在欧洲血统人群中,至少有3个与肺癌风险相关的关键染色体区域:15号染色体上烟碱乙酰胆碱受体基因的序列变异,与每天吸烟的数量、尼古丁依赖性和吸烟相关疾病有关;5号染色体上一个区域的序列变异,包括TERT和CLPTM1L基因;以及6号染色体上的一个区域。后两个区域似乎都与吸烟行为无关(Rafnar 2011)。与肺癌有直系亲属关系会增加大约50%的患病风险;当患病亲属是兄弟姐妹时,患病风险会增加到大约80%(Cote 2012)。

既往肺部疾病

许多肺部疾病,包括慢性支气管炎、肺气肿、肺炎和肺结核,都与肺癌的发生有关(Brenner 2012;Koshiol 2009)。具体来说,患有肺气肿和慢性支气管炎的人患肺癌的风险分别增加2.44倍和1.47倍。有肺气肿、肺炎或肺结核病史的从不吸烟者比没有肺气肿、肺炎或肺结核病史的人患肺癌的风险更高(Brenner 2012)。这些疾病是肺组织炎症的主要来源,被认为是导致恶性肿瘤的细胞变化的原因(Brenner 2012;Koshiol 2009;Engels 2008)。

炎症与肺癌

炎症信号传导参与了肺癌生物学的许多方面。癌细胞的增殖和存活、供应肿瘤的新血管的生长(血管生成)、癌症的扩散(转移)以及对各种化疗药物的肿瘤反应都在不同程度上依赖于炎症反应(Gomes 2014;Hanahan 2011)。因此,一些研究已经将炎症标记物水平的升高与肺癌风险的增加联系起来。

2013年发表的一项研究评估了526名肺癌患者和592名健康对照组中68种与炎症相关的生物标志物。发现11种生物标志物与肺癌风险相关;促炎标志物(如CRP)与肺癌风险增加相关,而抗炎标志物(如白细胞介素-1受体拮抗剂)与风险降低相关(Shiels 2013)。对10项研究中1918例肺癌病例的数据进行系统分析后发现,C-反应蛋白(CRP)水平升高与肺癌风险之间存在显著的统计学关联:CRP每增加1毫克/升单位,风险增加28%(Zhou,2012年)。另一个炎症标志物-白介素-6(IL-6)-在两项研究的数据分析中与肺癌风险显著增加相关。在其中一项研究中,血清IL-6水平在前25%分布范围内的受试者患肺癌的可能性是IL-6水平较低的受试者的3.29倍。同样,第二项研究显示,在IL-6水平分布的前25%人群中,肺癌风险增加1.48倍(Pine,2011年)。

除了炎症在预测肺癌风险中的作用外,测量肺癌患者的炎症可能有助于判断预后。在一项对173名转移性非小细胞肺癌患者的研究中,研究人员根据拟人化测量、白蛋白水平和中性粒细胞与淋巴细胞的比率建立了一个炎症指数。这个指数被称为晚期肺癌炎症指数(ALI),发现它是一个强有力的预测总体和无进展生存时间的指标。ALI评分显示全身炎症程度高的患者总生存期为3.4个月,而ALI评分显示炎症程度低的患者平均生存期为8.3个月(Jafri 2013)。

研究表明,长期使用非甾体抗炎药(NSAIDs)可降低肺癌风险,这进一步证明了炎症与肺癌之间的强大联系(Gomes 2014)。非甾体抗炎药与肺癌风险之间的关系将在本方案后面的“新兴的和新颖的治疗策略”部分进一步讨论。

致癌环境因素和毒素

一些环境因素与肺癌的发生有关,包括接触石棉、柴油发动机废气、空气污染、杀虫剂以及镉和镍等重金属(Vermeulen 2014;Raaschou Nielsen 2013;Clapp 2008;Offermans 2014;Wild 2009)。

氡是铀、钍和镭衰变过程中释放出的一种放射性气体,可损伤肺上皮细胞,导致癌症。事实上,在美国,氡是仅次于吸烟的第二大肺癌病因(NCI 2011)。

病毒和细菌——与肺癌的潜在关联

某些类型的人乳头瘤病毒(HPV)会增加患宫颈癌、外阴癌、肛门癌、口腔癌和头颈癌的风险。此外,HPV感染,尤其是HPV-16和HPV-18,可能与肺癌的发生有关,尽管证据不一(Zandberg 2013)。

感染艾滋病病毒的人患肺癌的风险也更高,即使考虑到吸烟状况,也比一般人高出2到4倍。有几个因素可能导致这种关联,包括病毒本身的促癌特性、该人群反复肺部感染的风险增加以及HIV相关免疫系统异常(Mani 2012)。

一个新的假说表明,幽门螺杆菌(helicobacterpylori,H.pylori)细菌是大多数胃溃疡的根本原因,也可能增加肺癌的风险。流行病学证据似乎表明肺癌可能在感染幽门螺杆菌的人群中更为普遍,研究发现上呼吸道组织中存在这种细菌的证据。然而,要将两者联系起来还需要更多的研究(Deng 2013)。


五、体征和病症

肺癌的症状包括胸部不适或疼痛、持续咳嗽、呼吸困难、喘息、痰血、声音嘶哑、食欲不振、无法解释的体重减轻、疲劳、吞咽困难以及面部和/或颈部静脉肿胀(NCI 2013c)。小细胞肺癌患者有时会表现出其他症状,包括抗利尿激素分泌不当综合征(SIADH)。(抗利尿激素或血管加压素有助于调节肾脏对水的再吸收,以及血压。)抗利尿激素分泌异常导致组织内液体积聚过多(Canadian Cancer Society 2014)。

有时病人出现的症状是由于癌症,但不是由局部癌细胞引起的。术语“副肿瘤综合征”是指由肿瘤产生的物质引起的症状的集合,并发生在远离肿瘤本身的地方。有时,副肿瘤综合征可以出现在癌症诊断之前,可能是癌症的症状。这些疾病包括皮质醇水平过高引起的库欣综合征;副肿瘤性小脑变性(一种罕见的神经系统疾病);或兰伯特-伊顿肌无力综合征,一种罕见的导致四肢肌肉无力的自身免疫性疾病(Yoh 2003;Marchioli 1997;Thomas 2004;Gandhi 2006;Gilhus 2011;NCI 2013c)。


六、诊断和癌症分期

诊断

许多测试和诊断工具可用于鉴别肺癌并确定其进展程度。血液检测是常规检查的一部分,包括全血计数(CBC)和化学分析(包括肝肾功能测试和电解质等多项参数)(O'Hanlon 2013)。

成像。X线、磁共振成像(MRI)、胸部CT和正电子发射断层扫描(PET)扫描用于肺癌的诊断和分期(Horn 2013a)。此外,可以进行骨骼扫描,以查看癌症是否已经转移到骨骼中(Horn 2013a;American Lung Association 2014b)。PET扫描也可以帮助确定癌症是否已经转移到身体的其他部位(Schrevens 2004)。PET扫描包括给病人注射一种叫做氟脱氧葡萄糖(FDG)的放射性示踪剂,FDG是一种经过修饰的葡萄糖分子,它仍然可以被细胞吸收。在注射FDG后不久,病人就被计算机辅助扫描技术所分析,该技术可以检测到放射性FDG所发出的伽马射线。由于癌细胞比大多数正常细胞具有更高的代谢活性,细胞识别为葡萄糖的FDG被更快地吸收到癌组织中。因此,PET扫描将通过检测受影响组织中更高浓度的FDG来揭示癌症转移区域(Lucignani 2004;Avril 2001;Huang 2000;Bustamante 1977;Lopez Lazaro 2008;Verhagen 2004;Zhu 2011)。

组织样本对于准确诊断肺癌类型、计划治疗和预测预后是必要的(O'Hanlon 2013)。

活检。细针活检使用细长针从肺部取出一块组织,然后在显微镜下进行检查(American Lung Association 2014b)。如果在切除肿瘤的手术中获得组织,可能不需要活检(NCCN 2014a)。

组织样本可以通过几种不同的方法获得。手术或活检的类型取决于基于影像学和临床发现的疑似癌症特征(Rivera 2013):

  1. 支气管镜活检。支气管镜检查包括将一根软管从喉咙插入肺部,以便医生查看气道和肺部(a.D.a.M.2013b),支气管镜活检通常在手术前进行(NCCN 2014a)。

  2. 支气管内超声(EBUS)引导肺活检。支气管内超声与支气管镜相似,只是在支气管镜的末端安装了一个超声装置。它用于观察癌症是否已经扩散到淋巴结和/或胸部附近组织(American Lung Association 2014b)。支气管内超声(EBUS)引导下的肺活检是一种微创手术,将末端带有气囊的细导管插入气道以获得详细图像。活检仪器可以通过导管插入以获得活检样本(Gomez 2009)。

  3. 纵隔镜检查由外科医生通过微小的切口插入一个小型摄像机来显示纵隔(即胸骨和脊柱之间以及肺之间的胸部部分)。这一程序有助于切除淋巴结,寻找肺外侧和胸部的异常生长(A.D.A.M.2012a;A.D.A.M.2012b)。

  4. 胸腔镜、电视胸腔镜手术(VATS)。这是外科医生寻找并切除胸壁肿瘤的外科手术(American Lung Association 2014b)。

痰细胞学检查。从肺部咳出的粘液在显微镜下检查是否有癌细胞(American Lung Association 2014b)。

胸腔穿刺术。医生在肋骨之间插入一根针,排出液体并评估其是否有癌细胞(美American Lung Association 2014b)。

癌症分期

癌症的程度取决于肿瘤的大小,癌细胞是否已经扩散到附近的淋巴结,以及是否发生了其他转移事件。NSCLC的分期从I期到IV期,IV期代表晚期转移癌。根据肿瘤和肺的具体特征以及癌症扩散的部位进一步细分分期(NCCN 2014a;NCI 2013a)。

小细胞肺癌病例分为局限性疾病阶段(肿瘤局限于肺部和附近淋巴结)或广泛性疾病阶段(已发生胸外转移)(NCCN 2014b)。

分期是在多次检查后确定的,包括MRI、CT或PET扫描;骨扫描;肺功能检查;内窥镜超声检查;纵隔镜检查;淋巴结活检;有时,骨髓抽吸和活检检查癌症是否转移到骨髓(NCI 2013c)。

肺癌筛选

包括美国胸科医师学会,美国临床肿瘤学会,美国癌症学会,美国胸外科协会在内的研究学会现在建议每年用低剂量计算机断层扫描(LDCT)对当前吸烟者和大多数55到80岁的前吸烟者进行筛查(取决于具体指南)。最近的指导方针建议,对30年来每天平均抽一包烟的吸烟者或在过去15年内戒烟的吸烟者进行LDCT筛查(Moyer 2013)。

这些建议基于2011年公布的全国肺筛查试验结果。研究发现,与每年用胸部X光检查的患者相比,现在或以前的重度吸烟者在5到7年的研究期间,每年用LDCT进行3次肺癌筛查检查,肺癌死亡率降低了20%(National Lung Screening Trial Research Team 2011)。其他证据表明,在美国,LDCT每年可预防约12000例肺癌死亡(Ma 2013)。

如果筛查发现肺结节,根据结节的大小进行额外的放射检查,包括3到6个月的随访LDCT或立即CT/PET扫描。有大结节的患者应转诊给外科医生进行活检或手术切除(NCCN 2014a)。

LDCT扫描确实使患者暴露在某些辐射下;这种暴露低于一年的背景辐射(Detterbeck 2013)。然而,由于辐射暴露而产生的潜在风险被认为被LDCT肺癌筛查的益处所抵消(UKCC 2014)。

研究人员正在努力确定可以用来筛查肺癌的血液检测方法。2014年初发表在《临床肿瘤学杂志》(Journal of Clinical Oncology)上的一项研究证实,使用血液检测分析血浆中的小片段遗传物质(microRNA)来检测肺癌的时间比螺旋CT早了两年,假阳性率比成像检测要少。这项测试寻找肺癌的遗传标记;这项测试或类似测试可能在不久的将来进入美国和欧洲市场(PR Newswire 2014;Sozzi 2014)。


七、传统治疗

肺癌的治疗取决于癌症的亚型及其分期。第一阶段或第二阶段非小细胞肺癌的初始治疗是手术,通常随后化疗和放疗。尽管对III期癌症患者的手术治疗存在争议,但国家指南建议在某些情况下使用(McCloskey 2013)。无论哪种方式,这些患者通常都会接受化疗,并且通常会接受专门针对已知参与肺癌发生的信号通路的药物,如贝伐单抗(Avastin)、厄洛替尼((Tarceva)或克唑替尼(Xalkori)(NCCN 2014a;ACS 2013a)。

早期(I期)小细胞肺癌可通过手术切除受影响的肺叶,然后进行化疗,联合化疗和放疗,或单独化疗(ACS 2014d)。较晚期的小细胞肺癌通常采用单独化疗或对全脑(治疗/预防转移)或身体其他部位进行放射治疗以缩小肿瘤和减轻症状(NCCN 2014b)。

手术

胸外科手术切除原发性肺肿瘤是早期非小细胞肺癌的标准治疗方法(Belani 2005;He 2012;NCCN 2014a;Liberman 2006)。首选的方法是解剖性肺切除术(开胸术),也称为肺切除术或节段切除术,取决于切除了多少肺组织。它是普通胸外科最常见的外科手术。可采用一种称为VATS(电视胸腔镜手术)的微创方法进行(He 2012;NCCN 2014a)。胸腔镜的一个优点是它只需要在胸部开一个小切口。因此,手术时间更短,术后并发症更少,恢复更快(Detterbeck 2013;NCCN 2014a)。

只有约5%的小细胞肺癌患者在I期得到诊断,这是唯一可以选择手术的阶段(NCCN 2014b)。

超过一半的两种类型的肺癌患者由于局部扩散(即扩展到肺以外进入胸腔)或远处转移而不符合手术条件(Shamji,2013)。其他禁忌症包括患者年龄(特别是75岁及以上)、一般身心健康状况以及癌症的某些特征。此外,患者可选择不接受手术(Dell'amore2013;Shamji2013;Mehta2012)。

研究学者鼓励读者也回顾癌症手术方案,其中包含了那些准备接受手术切除癌组织的重要考虑因素的详细信息。

放射治疗

根据肺癌的类型、分期、并发症的存在和性质,放射治疗可以单独进行,也可以与化疗和/或手术联合进行。结合手术,放射治疗方案旨在最大限度地杀死手术区(即肿瘤切除区域)的肺癌细胞。放射治疗可在手术前(新辅助治疗)缩小肿瘤,或在手术后(辅助治疗)破坏残留的肿瘤细胞(O'Hanlon 2013)。

非小细胞肺癌。放疗可用于接受手术的非小细胞肺癌患者,在无法进行手术时作为主要治疗方式,在术后癌症未完全切除时作为姑息治疗,以帮助患者保持舒适(O'Hanlon 2013)。

小细胞肺癌。在小细胞肺癌中,放疗与化疗同时进行被认为是标准和首选的治疗方法,从开始任何治疗到结束放疗之间的较短时间与生存率的提高显著相关(NCCN 2014b)。

此外,在所有患者中,放射治疗可用于治疗脑转移、脊髓压迫或引起症状的局部病变,如神经麻痹或气道阻塞(NCCN 2014a;O'Hanlon 2013;Baskar 2012)。头颅放射治疗也可以预防性的实施;小细胞肺癌可以在脑外控制的患者在治疗的2-3年内发生中枢神经系统转移的几率约为60%。据报道,预防性头颅放射治疗可显著降低这种风险(NCI 2014a)。

常规放疗约70%的时间不能控制不能切除的NSCLC。接受常规放射治疗的不可切除非小细胞肺癌患者中只有约40%存活2年(Ferri 2013)。放射治疗可提高有限期小细胞肺癌患者的生存率,建议在确诊后尽快进行(ACR 2012)。它通常与化疗一起用于有限疾病患者和对化疗有反应的广泛阶段疾病患者(NCCN 2014b;Provencio 2011)。

高剂量放射治疗可能与某些副作用有关,具体取决于靶体的面积。幸运的是,许多现代放射治疗技术,如调强放射治疗(IMRT)、螺旋体层摄影治疗和容积调制电弧治疗,更精确地靶向癌组织,减少对附近组织和器官的损伤(Chi 2013)。一种被称为立体定向全身放射治疗的靶向放射治疗作为治疗早期肺癌的有效手段正受到关注。一种称为伽玛刀放射外科的技术被用来进行靶向放射治疗,同时保留周围的健康组织,并在肺癌脑转移的背景下进行了深入研究(Abacioglu 2010;Serizawa 2000;Serizawa 2002)。一项对59例早期但不能手术的肺癌患者进行的3年术后研究发现,立体定向全身放疗的生存率为55.8%,肿瘤控制率为97.6%,约为常规放疗的两倍(Timmerman 2010)。

癌症放射治疗方案提供了关于放射治疗的全面讨论,并概述了一些可以采取的步骤,以最大限度地提高其效益和减少其副作用。

化疗

化疗是指用化学药品(药物)治疗疾病。在癌症化疗中,给病人服用的药物通常会干扰细胞分裂过程,从而对癌细胞造成损害(Goodin 2007)。尽管化疗可以影响恶性和健康细胞,但那些受到致癌突变影响的细胞往往更容易受到这些药物的影响,因为它们的生长和分裂速度比大多数正常细胞快得多。然而,某些类型的细胞,如毛囊、胃肠道和口腔粘膜中的细胞,在正常情况下会迅速分裂,从而导致与化疗相关的常见副作用(Mukherjee 2010;Hanahan 2011;PubMed Health 2012)。

新辅助化疗(术前)和辅助化疗(术后)仍是肺癌治疗的主流(Ripley 2013;Daly 2011;Reungwetwattana 2011)。

非小细胞肺癌。接受辅助化疗的NSCLC患者通常接受顺铂(Platinol)和长春瑞滨(Navelbine);在某些情况下,可以使用卡铂代替顺铂,尽管现有证据表明顺铂可能更有效(NCI 2014b)。其他使用的药物包括吉西他滨(Gemzar)、多西他赛(Taxotere)和培美曲塞(Alimta)。同时接受化疗/放疗的患者通常使用顺铂和足叶乙甙(Etopophos,Toposar)、顺铂和长春碱(Velbe)、顺铂和培美曲塞或卡铂(Paraplatin)和培美曲塞(NCCN 2014a)。顺铂通常是新辅助化疗的一部分(Daly 2011)。

小细胞肺癌。局限性小细胞肺癌患者通常接受顺铂或卡铂联合足叶乙甙化疗。患有广泛期疾病的患者可接受其他方案,如伊立替康(喜树碱,CPT-11)和顺铂(NCCN 2014b;NCI 2014c)。

大多数化疗药物通常对快速生长的细胞,包括健康细胞具有活性。它们会产生严重的副作用,通常会危及生命(如贫血、免疫抑制和心脏损害)。化疗方案概述了几种可能有助于减轻化疗不良反应的综合策略。

靶向治疗

非小细胞肺癌和小细胞肺癌手术、放疗和传统化疗治疗的成功在很大程度上取决于尽早诊断肺癌(Daniels 2013;Yasufuku 2010;Herbst 2008)。然而,只有三分之一的非小细胞肺癌病例在早期诊断,仅通过手术切除即可缓解病情(Byron 2014)。即便如此,高达40%的I期患者、66%的II期患者和75%的III期NSCLC患者在5年内死亡(Byron 2014)。

然而,近年来,靶向癌细胞内信号通路并特异于肿瘤类型和基因构成的新型药物为肺癌患者提供了更多的选择,即使是晚期诊断的患者(Majem2013;Larsen2011)。在传统化疗失败后,它们通常被用作二线或三线治疗,通常与传统的化学疗法结合使用(Majem,2013年)。

靶向治疗可能由肿瘤的分子足迹决定,从而使临床医生能够根据特定的突变选择药物(表1)。例如,EGFR(表皮生长因子受体)突变的患者可从阻断受体激活途径的药物治疗中获益,这些药物包括厄洛替尼、西妥昔单抗(Erbitux)和阿法替尼(Gilotrif)(NCCN 2014a;ACS 2014b;Rengan 2011;Majem 2013;Gao 2012;Domvri 2013)。

关键的分子生物标记物包括KRAS突变、ALK重排、MET和EGFR免疫组织化学,所有这些都有助于识别对各种化疗、放疗和分子靶向药物的敏感性(Vincent 2012)。

根据患者肿瘤的基因特征进行个体化治疗的能力正在开创一个个性化医疗的新时代。

表1. 针对基因改变(NSCLC)患者的靶向药物(Gadducci 2013;Pirrotta 2011;NCI 2012;Elisei 2013;NCCN 2014a;Douillard 2014;Drilon 2013)

靶向基因突变/改变现在可用的靶向药物
EGFR吉非替尼(Gefitinib,Iressa), 奥希替尼(Tagrisso, osimertinib), 厄洛替尼(erlotinib), 阿法替尼(afatinib), 西妥昔单抗(cetuximab)
ALK克唑替尼(Crizotinib)
HER2曲妥珠单抗 (Trastuzumab, Herceptin), 阿法替尼(afatinib)
BRAF维罗非尼(Vemurafenib,Zelboraf),达拉菲尼 (dabrafenib,Tafinlar)
MET克唑替尼(Crizotinib)
ROS1克唑替尼(Crizotinib)
RET卡博替尼(Cabozantinib ,Cometriq)
VEGF贝伐单抗(Bevacizumab), 舒尼替尼(sunitinib,Sutent), 索拉非尼(sorafenib,Nexavar)

奥西美替尼治疗非小细胞肺癌。Osimertinib(Tagrisso)被批准作为具有某些EGFR突变的转移性NSCLC患者的一线治疗。2020年12月,FDA批准osimertinib作为转移性EGFR T790M突变阳性NSCLC患者的第一种辅助治疗(Pazdur 2020)。在对682例具有这种特异性突变的早期非小细胞肺癌患者进行的3期、双盲、随机ADAURA试验(Wu 2020)中评估了Osimertinib。患者接受手术以完全切除肿瘤,恢复后接受标准护理化疗或奥西莫替尼。结果显示,与标准治疗组的患者相比,接受奥西美替尼治疗的患者无病生存期显著延长。24个月时,在IB至IIIA期疾病患者的总体人群中,奥西美替尼组的无病生存率为89%,而安慰剂组为52%。

贝伐单抗治疗非小细胞肺癌。新血管的形成,即血管生成,是刺激(促血管生成)和抑制(抗血管生成)这一过程的因素之间复杂平衡的结果(Carmeliet 2000;Pallis 2013b)。通常情况下,血管生成发生在非常特定的时期,如发育、生殖和伤口愈合,但在实体瘤的发展和转移扩散过程中也是关键的(Pallis 2013b)。

血管内皮生长因子(Vascular endothelial growth factor,VEGF)是一种与细胞受体(cellular receptors,VEGF receptors)相互作用促进血管生成的蛋白。血管内皮生长因子受体途径被认为是肿瘤血管生成最有力的介质(Das 2012;Pallis 2013b)。

贝伐单抗是一种抗血管内皮生长因子的抗体;它被FDA批准用于卡铂和紫杉醇联合治疗不能切除的NSCLC的一线全身治疗(FDA 2013;Das 2012;Ferrara 2004;Pallis 2013b;Planchard 2011;NCI 2013e)。贝伐单抗能够通过直接与血管内皮生长因子结合并阻止其激活受体来抑制血管生成。除了NSCLC,贝伐单抗在其他癌症中也显示出临床益处,包括乳腺癌、肾癌和转移性结直肠癌(Wang 2013)。一些研究表明,基于贝伐单抗的联合治疗对非小细胞肺癌有临床益处(Sandler 2006;Reck 2009),即使是晚期非小细胞肺癌患者,使用这种化合物的长期治疗也显示出益处(Fan 2013)。高血压、出血风险增加和胃肠道穿孔是贝伐单抗治疗的不良反应(Wang 2013;Planchard 2011)。

环唑替尼治疗非小细胞肺癌。在非小细胞肺癌中,几种不同的基因可能发生突变,这些突变可能导致疾病的发展。其中一个基因ALK在2007年与一小部分但相当大比例的NSCLC患者有关(Gupta 2014)。在NSCLC中,3-7%的患者报告了某些涉及ALK的基因改变,尤其是从不吸烟或轻度吸烟的年轻人;这些发现有助于定义NSCLC的新亚型(Shaw 2013;Gupta 2014;Iwama 2014)。在先前接受过治疗的晚期非小细胞肺癌患者中,发现环唑替尼优于标准化疗。

克唑替尼抑制ALK基因产物的基因功能。2011年底,在发现其靶点不到4年后,FDA批准了该药物(Gandhi 2012)。环唑替尼的不良反应包括恶心、腹泻、便秘、呕吐、四肢积水和视力问题。此外,1.6%的患者患有与治疗相关的危及生命或致命的间质性肺病(Iwama 2014)。

维持疗法

维持治疗是一个术语,用于指一旦患者达到肿瘤反应或病情稳定后提供的治疗。然而,定义略有不同,美国国家癌症研究所将其定义为一旦癌症得到成功控制,就给予预防癌症进展的治疗。它可以使用和之前服用的相同药物,也可以使用不同的药物,除了药物之外,还可以包括疫苗或抗体治疗(Novello 2011;Stinchcombe 2011;Hirsh 2010)。一些大型试验已经评估了各种药物作为NSCLC患者维持治疗的应用,包括多西紫杉醇、培美曲塞、贝伐单抗、厄洛替尼和西妥昔单抗,所有这些都证明了接受治疗的患者,主要是无进展疾病患者的无进展生存率和/或总生存率有所提高。在广泛期小细胞肺癌患者中未观察到此类益处(Horn 2013b)。


八、新兴的和新颖的治疗策略

疫苗

癌症医学最令人兴奋的前沿领域之一是癌症疫苗和免疫疗法的新兴领域(Emens 2008)。这一前沿方法涉及重新编程癌症患者的免疫系统,以更积极地针对他或她的癌症(Bodey 2000;Butterfield 2014)。治疗性癌症疫苗背后的基本思想或多或少类似于预防传染病的疫苗。然而,癌症疫苗的目的不是预防疾病,而是针对已经存在于患者体内的疾病启动免疫反应(Palucka 2013)。

新技术和对肺癌及其与免疫系统相互作用的进一步了解为免疫治疗带来了新的机遇,一些疫苗正在进行后期临床试验(Brahmer 2013)。特别是,研究人员已经确定了大量的蛋白质选择性表达或修饰的肿瘤细胞,而不是正常的,非癌细胞。这些被称为肿瘤相关抗原(TAA)的蛋白质可与癌症疫苗一起利用,作为免疫系统识别癌症的“标志”,并将其消除,就像它们是病毒感染的细胞一样(Buonaguro 2011;Brahmer 2013;Palucka 2013)。

目前正在研究两种疫苗:肿瘤细胞疫苗(由实际的癌细胞组成,有时是患者自己的)和抗原疫苗(肿瘤细胞表达的靶向特异性蛋白)(Brahmer 2013)。

晚期临床试验中的疫苗包括belagenpumatucel-L(Lucanix),由四个经过辐照的非小细胞肺癌细胞系制成,在75名患者的II期临床试验中,与低剂量组相比,高剂量组的应答率为15%,中位总生存率显著提高(Brahmer 2013)。截至本文撰写之时,一项比较belagenpumatucel-L与安慰剂在NSCLC患者一线化疗后的III期试验正在进行中(Fakhrai 2012)。抗原特异性疫苗包括黑色素瘤相关抗原A3(MAGE-A3),其靶向仅在某些肿瘤上表达的肿瘤特异性抗原,包括约三分之一的NSCLC;BLP-25脂质体疫苗和TG4010疫苗,两者均靶向上皮细胞上表达的异常蛋白;以及CimaVax EGF,诱导针对EGF的抗体阻断EGF与其受体EGFR之间的结合(Brahmer 2013;Fernandez Lorente 2013;Mancebo 2012)。

利用循环肿瘤细胞检测进行个性化癌症护理

癌症患者最害怕的一个词是“转移”。转移是癌细胞从原发肿瘤扩散到远处的器官或组织。在大多数癌症相关死亡病例中,夺走癌症患者生命的不是原发肿瘤,而是远处转移的出现(Liberko 2013)。

为了使癌症转移,原发肿瘤的细胞必须脱离并渗透到循环系统中,然后转移到身体的另一部分。这些流经血液的癌细胞被称为循环肿瘤细胞(CTCs)(Wang,Liu 2011)。近年来,技术进步使临床医生能够从癌症患者的血液样本中收集和评估CTC。这些创新为新的诊断和治疗策略铺平了道路,这些策略基于对几种癌症中CTC的定量和定性分析(Liberko 2013)。

定量CTC分析允许对患者外周血中的CTC进行计数,并对几种癌症的预后提供一些见解。一般来说,外周血中CTC数量越多,预后越差。美国FDA批准了一种称为CellSearch的分析方法,用于列举乳腺癌、结肠癌和前列腺癌患者的CTC(Janssen Diagnostics,2014年)。CellSearch CTC定量计算患者外周血中CTC的数量,并将结果置于循证参考范围内。

遗憾的是,截至本文撰写之时,尚未完成足够的肺癌患者研究,以确定有意义的预后参考范围和CTC计数阈值,但更多的研究正在进行中,肺癌患者可能很快就能从使用CellSearch或其他方法的CTC分析中获益(Hashimoto 2014)。例如,2014年发表的一项研究表明,与CTC计数较低的患者相比,基线检查时CTC计数较高的NSCLC患者的总体生存率和无进展生存率较差。这项研究还显示,化疗期间CTC计数较低的患者比计数较高的患者有更好的总体和无进展生存率(Muinelo-Romay 2014)。同样,一项针对21例局限期和38例广泛期小细胞肺癌患者的研究采用细胞搜索方法,在化疗前、化疗后和化疗结束时检测CTCs。一个化疗周期后的CTC计数被发现是对化疗反应和生存的一个强有力的预测指标。此外,基线CTC计数较低的患者比CTC计数较高的患者存活时间更长(Hiltermann 2012)。另一项研究,这次使用了另一种称为TelomeScan的CTC检测方法,发现在开始治疗前每7.5 mL血液中CTC少于2个的SCLC患者(14.8个月)比每7.5mL血液中2个或更多CTC的患者生存更长(3.9个月)。 进行研究的研究人员得出结论:“……治疗前的CTC计数似乎是很强的预后影响因素”(Igawa 2014)。

CTC测试的另一个方面——定性CTC分析——可用于指导癌症治疗决策。最近的技术进步使CTC测试从简单的计数发展到表征CTC复杂的分子特性(Dong 2012;Rahbari 2012;Boshuizen 2012)。

转移癌治疗中的一个主要障碍是,脱离原发部位的肿瘤细胞可能会产生不同于原发肿瘤的代谢特性。这带来了几个问题,因为医生通常依靠对原发性肿瘤组织样本的分子分析来指导治疗。例如,一旦病人被诊断出患有癌症,并且确定了一个肿瘤,组织样本(活组织检查)通常会从肿瘤中取出,然后送到病理学家那里进行分子分析。这阐明了肿瘤细胞的特性,并允许肿瘤学家根据癌细胞的分子特征选择成功可能性更高的干预措施。然而,甚至在同一个患者中在几种癌症类型中,原发性肿瘤和转移性肿瘤之间的分子差异已经被观察到(Cavalli 2003;Smiraglia 2003)。因此,基于原发性肿瘤分子分析的干预措施可能对转移性肿瘤无效(Biofocus 2011)。

定性CTC分析是克服这一障碍的一个步骤。CTCs的分子和遗传特性的表征允许肿瘤学家选择一种可能对转移性肿瘤更有效的药物方案。通过一个被称为“化学敏感性测试”的过程,病理学家可以分析CTCs的特性,并根据其特定的基因组成确定哪些化疗药物可能杀死这些细胞。肿瘤学家可以开发一种治疗方案,包括患者CTC易感的药物(Biofocus 2011;Rüdiger 2013)。

二甲双胍

全世界有1亿多2型糖尿病患者服用二甲双胍(葡萄糖噬菌体),通过使细胞对胰岛素更敏感和减少肝脏葡萄糖的生成来降低血清葡萄糖水平(Viollet 2012)。

二甲双胍也被证明能有效激活一种叫做腺苷单磷酸活化蛋白激酶(AMPK)的细胞蛋白(Hardie 2012)。这抑制了一种名为雷帕霉素哺乳动物靶蛋白(mTOR)的蛋白质,该蛋白驱动细胞新陈代谢并促进细胞生长(Gwinn 2008)。AMPK激活也显示出选择性抑制肿瘤抑制基因p53缺失的癌细胞(Buzzai 2007)。

流行病学研究发现,使用二甲双胍的2型糖尿病患者患肺癌的风险显著降低(Mazzone 2012;Noto 2012)。此外,对肺癌细胞的研究发现,二甲双胍促进了化疗药物顺铂和放疗方案的抗癌特性(Storozhuk 2013;Lin 2013)。

一项针对16名糖尿病和III期非小细胞肺癌患者的小型研究的初步结果发现,在放化疗中加入二甲双胍可显著减少局部复发,期间随访10.4个月,仅有2例复发(Penn Medicine 2013;Csiki 2013)。另一项对99名NSCLC和2型糖尿病患者的数据进行评估的研究发现,与接受胰岛素和化疗的受试者相比,接受化疗和二甲双胍的受试者无进展生存期显著延长(Tan 2011)。

非甾体抗炎药和阿司匹林

环氧合酶-2(COX-2)是一种酶,可将一种称为花生四烯酸的欧米伽-6脂肪酸转化为前列腺素H2(PGH2),前列腺素H2是一种参与炎症和疼痛的信使分子;癌细胞中COX-2酶的活性通常增加(Khan 2011;Mazhar 2005)。非甾体抗炎药(NSAIDs)具有显著的抗炎和镇痛特性的一个原因是它们抑制COX-2(Mao 2011;Menter 2010;Dionne 2001;Ishiguro 2014)。阿司匹林尤其与降低肺癌风险有关(Xu,2012年)。一些流行病学研究也发现,使用选择性COX-2抑制剂塞来昔布(西乐葆)可降低72%的肺癌发病风险(Harris 2007)。

此外,一些研究发现,在肺癌进展过程中,COX-2表达增加,高水平的COX-2与较差的预后相关(Takahashi 2002;Jiang 2013;Mao 2011)。具体而言,这些研究发现高水平的COX-2与鳞状细胞癌、早期NSCLC和NSCLC腺癌亚型的发生显著相关(Jiang 2013)。一种COX-2抑制剂apricoxib(Capoxigem)已经完成了一项II期研究,研究对象是晚期疾病的含铂治疗方案失败的患者。研究发现,在120例晚期肺癌患者中,联合应用阿普昔布和厄洛替尼治疗后,尿PGEM生物标志物(COX-2活性增高的指标)减少,疾病控制率提高71%,中位无进展生存率提高93%;中位总生存率提高了205%(Gitlitz 2011)。

然而,COX-2抑制剂并非没有自身的风险。事实上,已经退出美国市场的塞来昔布和罗非昔布(Vioxx)等特异性抑制COX-2的药物与心脏病发作等心血管事件的风险增加有关。为此,在2004年和2005年,美国FDA和其他公共卫生当局建议医生和患者在心血管事件风险人群中应谨慎使用选择性COX-2抑制剂(Bennett 2005;Antman 2007)。

阿司匹林,非选择性地抑制COX-1和COX-2,似乎也能预防肺癌(Harrington 2008)。来自动物模型的证据表明阿司匹林可以减少肺癌向区域淋巴结的转移。同样的实验还发现阿司匹林治疗显著降低了小鼠肺癌的死亡率(Ogawa 2014)。

流行病学证据表明,经常服用阿司匹林可以降低肺癌的风险。在一项研究中,398名中国女性肺癌患者与健康对照组进行了比较。经常服用阿司匹林的女性患肺癌的可能性降低50%。研究人员得出结论:“我们的结果表明,服用阿司匹林可能降低亚洲女性患肺癌的风险,这与目前对环氧合酶在肺癌发生中的作用的理解是一致的”(Lim 2012)。阿司匹林也被证明能改善肺癌患者的术后预后。研究人员分析了胸科手术数据库的数据,发现在接受可能治愈的肺癌手术前服用阿司匹林的患者与不服用阿司匹林的患者相比,存活率显著提高。这一发现特别有意义,因为阿司匹林使用者往往有更高的心血管风险,这通常会增加死亡率(Fontaine,2010年)。

GM-CSF和IL-2增强免疫功能的研究

恶性细胞逃避免疫系统被认为是肿瘤发展的一个重要方面(Arens 2012)。免疫系统杀死体内出现的大多数恶性细胞;只有那些能够中和免疫细胞或避免被发现的细胞才会产生肿瘤细胞的后代(Hanahan 2011)。事实上,对转基因小鼠的研究表明,NK细胞、CD8+细胞毒性淋巴细胞或CD4+辅助性T细胞的缺乏都会增加致癌物诱发癌症的易感性(Teng 2008;Hanahan 2011)。这对癌症患者来说是一个困扰,因为许多研究表明癌症手术会导致NK细胞数量和/或活性的大幅降低(Da Costa 1998;Shakhar 2003;McCulloch 1993;Rosenne 2007)。在一项研究中,接受乳腺癌手术的妇女的NK细胞活性在术后第一天降低了50%以上(McCulloch 1993)。一组研究人员表示,“因此,我们认为,手术后不久,即使是短暂的免疫功能紊乱也可能使肿瘤[癌症]进入下一个发展阶段,并最终形成相当大的转移”(Shakhar 2003)。在另一项研究中,术前NK细胞活性降低的结直肠癌患者在随后的31个月内有350%的转移风险增加(Koda 1997)。

白细胞介素-2(IL-2)是一种内源性细胞因子,也可作为药物使用,有助于促进体内NK细胞亚群的扩张(Caligiuri 1990;Fehniger 2000;Choi 2008;Cheever 1986),而粒细胞-巨噬细胞集落刺激因子(GM-CSF)可增强免疫系统攻击癌细胞的能力(Rowe)1995年;Buchsel 2006;Arellano 2008;Freeman 2007)。对26例晚期非小细胞肺癌患者进行了吉西他滨联合多西他赛联合IL-2和GM-CSF治疗的临床试验。白细胞介素2和粒细胞集落刺激因子受体表现出更大的客观反应和增加数种免疫细胞(嗜酸性粒细胞、嗜碱性粒细胞和活化的单核血细胞)。研究人员得出结论,“添加免疫佐剂细胞因子[IL-2和GM-CSF]可能增强[吉西他滨加多西他赛]的活性”(Correale 2009)。动物模型实验表明,当GM-CSF和IL-2同时使用时,可产生强大的免疫效益。在一项针对缺乏NK细胞的免疫功能低下小鼠的研究中,IL-2和GM-CSF的联合应用可预防EB病毒诱导的淋巴增生性疾病,这是一种癌症样疾病(Baiocchi 2001)。

肺癌早期诊断的新生物标志物

研究正在进行,以确定肺癌的生物标志物在患者的呼气,这可能导致技术的早期诊断。这一策略是可能的,因为癌细胞内或周围发生的代谢变化可能产生的产品(挥发性有机化合物),可以在呼气中检测到(Amann2011)。2009年,研究人员开发了一种基于金纳米颗粒的传感器,它可以区分肺癌患者的呼气和健康人的呼气。几种挥发性有机化合物,在正常人的呼吸中存在于10亿分之1-20,在肺癌患者呼吸中升高到10-100分之10,这些精细的传感器可以检测到这种差异(Peng2009)。据报道,这种类型的测试是廉价的,非侵入性的,便携式的,代表了一个有前途的筛选策略的未来(Peng 2009; Mazzone 2009)。


九、饮食和生活方式的注意事项

几种饮食和生活方式管理策略可能有助于降低肺癌风险和/或改善治疗效果。

戒烟

戒烟是预防肺癌的关键策略之一,也是肺癌治疗的重要组成部分(Risser 1996;Leone 2013)。吸烟还会影响已经确诊的继续吸烟患者的生活质量,一些外科医生甚至不会对继续吸烟的患者进行手术(Leone 2013;NCCN 2014a)。幸运的是,有几种基于证据的方法可以帮助人们戒烟并保持无烟状态。

有几种形式的尼古丁替代疗法可以通过处方或非处方药获得,包括口香糖、贴片、吸入器、鼻腔喷雾剂和锭剂。此外,处方药安非他酮(wellutrin,Zyban)和酒石酸伐尼克兰(Chantix)被批准用于戒烟,并经常与尼古丁替代品一起使用。尽管酒石酸伐尼克兰(Chantix)似乎比安非他酮或尼古丁贴片更有效,但它更容易引起恶心(Leone 2013;Stead 2008;NCCN 2014a)。抗抑郁药去甲替林(帕美洛、安万特)、帕罗西汀(帕罗西汀)和文拉法辛(爱斐索)虽然未被特别批准用于戒烟,但也被使用(Hughes 2014;Killen 2000;Cinciripini 2005)。

政府网站http://smokefree.gov提供关于戒烟的附加信息。

控制血糖水平

研究发现,糖尿病和肺癌患者的预后更差。一项研究发现,空腹血糖水平为126毫克/分升或更高的非小细胞肺癌患者死于肺癌的可能性比血糖水平正常的患者高69%(Luo,2012)。另一项研究发现,接受NSCLC切除术的糖尿病患者的5年局部复发率为56%,而非糖尿病患者的5年局部复发率为26%(Varlotto 2012)。

健康饮食

一些研究发现,原发性肺癌手术切除后良好的营养可以显著提高生活质量(Sanchez Lara,2012年)。此外,预防营养不良和均衡饮食可以降低术后并发症的风险,如感染和死亡(Bagan 2013;Sanchez Lara 2012)。

坚持地中海饮食可以降低患肺癌的风险。在一项对4336名当前吸烟者或最近戒烟者的研究中,更多地坚持地中海式饮食与高达90%的肺癌风险降低相关(Gnagnarella 2013)。另一项研究考察了地中海饮食的特定方面,发现只使用橄榄油和食用鼠尾草香料与降低肺癌风险显著相关(Fortes 2003)。


十、中西医结合干预

黄芪

黄芪是一种中药,具有显著的免疫刺激作用。临床前研究发现黄芪可以促进荷瘤小鼠的抗肿瘤免疫反应,可能是通过恢复T细胞功能,这是免疫系统的一个重要组成部分(Cho 2007a;Cho 2007b)。

也有一些临床证据表明黄芪可以提高晚期非小细胞肺癌患者的生存率。特别是,研究人员发现,每天静脉注射黄芪60毫升,并结合常规治疗3个月的患者1年生存率为46.8%,而仅常规治疗组的生存率为30%(Zou 2003)。对12项涉及940名晚期非小细胞肺癌患者的研究进行了分析,调查了黄芪联合铂类化疗的疗效;研究人员发现黄芪组的1年生存率比单独接受铂类化疗的患者平均提高33%(McCulloch 2006)。在另一项研究中,136名非小细胞肺癌患者接受了长春瑞滨和顺铂或两者联合化疗药物与黄芪。研究人员注意到,患者的总体生活质量、身体功能、疲劳、恶心呕吐、疼痛和食欲不振显著改善(Guo 2012)。

维生素B6

一项研究评估了899名肺癌患者血液样本中的维生素B(B2、B6、B9和B12)和蛋氨酸水平,然后将其与健康组进行比较。血液中B6水平最高的人患肺癌的风险降低了56%,而蛋氨酸水平最高的人患肺癌的风险降低了48%(Johansson,2010)。

维生素B6似乎通过消耗细胞内的谷胱甘肽以及加剧细胞内应激来调节肺癌细胞对顺铂的反应。其机制可能与吡哆醛激酶(PDXK)的水平有关,PDXK是一种使B6具有生物活性的酶。对非小细胞肺癌患者的评估发现,PDXK低表达患者的无病生存率和总生存率显著降低(Galluzzi,2012)。

维生素D

越来越多的证据表明,维生素D可能对多种癌症具有化学保护作用(Fleet 2012;NCI 2013b)。皮肤细胞在阳光的紫外线照射下自然产生维生素D。然而,仅仅依靠阳光往往不足以达到最佳的血液维生素D水平。单靠饮食也很难获得足够的维生素D水平(Nair 2012)。

一项流行病学研究发现,在夏季接受手术且维生素D摄入量较高(每天大于596 IU)的NSCLC患者的无复发生存期和总生存期明显长于那些在冬季接受手术且维生素D摄入量较低(每天小于239 IU和没有维生素D补充剂)的患者(Zhou, Suk 2005)。此外,对第三次全国健康和营养检查调查(1988-1994)数据的分析发现,肺癌患者血液中维生素D水平较高,与短期戒烟者和从不吸烟者的死亡风险降低47%相关,与长期戒烟者(戒烟≥20年)和从不抽烟者的风险降低69%相关(Cheng,2012)。

绿茶

绿茶由茶树叶制成,含有多种抗氧化植物化学物质,称为多酚。表没食子儿茶素没食子酸酯(EGCG),绿茶中的主要活性成分,似乎对肺癌细胞具有显著的生长抑制作用,尤其是与化疗联合使用时(Yamauchi 2009;Shim 2010;Wang,Bian 2011;Anderson 2008;Suganuma 2011)。其在肺癌中的抗癌特性有多种机制,主要是其抑制EGFR信号通路的能力,抑制EGFR、AKT和ERK1/2活化,所有这些都与肺癌的发生有关(Ma 2014)。它似乎还降低了VEGF(血管内皮生长因子)的表达(Li 2013),增加了肿瘤抑制蛋白p53的表达,并抑制了COX-2的表达(Lu 2012)。另一项实验室研究发现,它抑制了肿瘤的转移,同时也提高了多西紫杉醇的疗效(邓2011)。此外,局部应用绿茶可能有助于辐射烧伤更快愈合(Fritz 2013)。然而,2009年的一项研究发现,绿茶阻断了某些类型的化疗药物(硼酸基蛋白酶体抑制剂)的抗癌作用,其中硼替佐米(Velcade)最为突出。研究发现他们研究的非硼酸蛋白酶体抑制剂没有负面影响(Golden 2009)。

褪黑素

褪黑素是松果体分泌的一种激素,对睡眠的正常调节是不可或缺的。一些研究发现,褪黑素可以减缓肿瘤的进展,因为它能够保护细胞免受氧化,诱导细胞死亡,并刺激免疫系统。它还可以在化疗期间保护红细胞前体(Srinivasan 2008)。

在一项对12名肺癌患者的研究中,研究人员评估了尿中褪黑素的标志物,发现低水平与更快的癌症生长有关(Bartsch 1997)。一项对100名肺癌患者的研究发现,每天晚上接受20毫克褪黑素化疗的患者的5年生存率和肿瘤消退率明显高于单独接受化疗的患者(Lissoni 2003)。其他研究还发现,每天口服10-50毫克褪黑素,持续3-5周,并进行化疗,似乎可以增强对化疗的反应,甚至可以证明一些疾病稳定和肿瘤消退(Vijayalaxmi,2002)。

水飞蓟素

传统上用于治疗某些肝病,水飞蓟素是药用植物奶蓟黄酮的混合物。多项研究表明,水飞蓟素的主要活性成分水飞蓟宾具有强大的抗氧化性能,可防止活性氧的形成、组织随后的DNA损伤和肿瘤细胞的生长(Kaur 2010;Dagne 2011;Li 2011)。研究发现,水飞蓟宾在实验室和小鼠体内抑制肺癌细胞的生长,其中一项研究报告说,水飞蓟宾与靶向生物药物吉非替尼一样有效(Mateen 2010;Chittezhas 2008;Cufi 2013)。它似乎还能增强小细胞肺癌细胞的凋亡或程序性细胞死亡,逆转对化疗药物足叶乙甙和阿霉素(阿霉素)以及EGFR抑制剂吉非替尼和厄洛替尼的耐药性(Sadava 2013;Rho 2010)。发现水飞蓟宾可抑制核因子κB(NF-κB),核因子κB参与许多致癌步骤,并导致化疗和放疗抵抗(Chen,2012年)。它似乎还能降低EGFR相关蛋白的活性,并具有抗血管生成作用,防止或减缓血管组织的生长(Rho 2010;Tyagi 2009)。

大豆异黄酮

异黄酮是一类存在于大豆和其他植物中的植物多酚。一项对444名肺癌女性的研究发现,那些在确诊前饮食中富含豆制品和异黄酮(平均每天31.4克豆制品)的女性在2年的随访中死亡率比那些摄入量最低的女性(平均每天6.3克豆制品)低81%(Yang,2013年)。

此外,在小鼠身上进行的研究发现,辐射前后给予大豆异黄酮可以使NSCLC细胞对放射治疗更为敏感,并防止与辐射相关的肺组织损伤和其他副作用,而对人类肺癌细胞的实验室研究显示,大豆会增加与辐射相关的细胞死亡(Hillman 2013; Hillman 2011; Singh-Gupta 2011)。一项对1674名肺癌患者的研究发现,饮食中摄入大豆生物活性物质(包括植物甾醇、异黄酮、木脂素和植物雌激素)最多的人比摄入最少的人患肺癌的可能性低21-46%(Schabath 2005)。

N-乙酰半胱氨酸

N-乙酰半胱氨酸(NAC)通常用于对抗对乙酰氨基酚中毒。考虑到其分解粘液的能力,它还可用于治疗某些呼吸疾病,如慢性阻塞性肺病(Millea 2009)。许多实验室和动物研究也支持其通过多种机制预防癌症的能力,包括在吸烟者中预防肺癌,包括抗氧化活性、基因表达的变化、对与细胞存活和凋亡相关的化学途径的影响、抗炎活性,抗血管生成活性(De Flora 2001)。此外,一项临床研究显示,每天两次服用600毫克的NAC,持续6个月,可以抑制某些有毒化合物的形成,这些有毒化合物是导致香烟烟雾介导的肺损伤的原因(Van Schooten,2002)。还有一项动物模型的研究表明,NAC与阿霉素的联合使用对减少癌症转移有协同作用(De Flora 1996)。

值得注意的是,一些临床前证据表明,补充维生素E和/或N-乙酰半胱氨酸可能不适合有某种肺癌病史的人。2019年发表的一项动物模型研究发现,补充N-乙酰半胱氨酸和合成α-生育酚可促进遗传性肺癌风险升高小鼠的肺癌转移(通过增加K-Ras表达)。因此,出于谨慎的考虑,研究学者建议肺癌患者在补充维生素E或N-乙酰半胱氨酸之前咨询医生,尤其是高剂量的维生素E或N-乙酰半胱氨酸。这对于K-Ras突变的人尤其重要,在大约30%的非小细胞肺癌患者中观察到这种突变。

石榴

石榴提取物含有高水平的抗氧化剂,在小鼠肺癌实验模型中被证明具有抗肺癌的特性。在小鼠身上进行的一项研究发现,将石榴果实提取物(在水中)与化疗联合使用比单独化疗可减少61.6-65.9%的肿瘤生长。作者推测,石榴的抗炎作用是由于其对与细胞增殖相关的几种生化途径的作用(Khan,Afaq 2007;Khan,Hadi 2007)。具体而言,每天食用石榴提取物与暴露于致癌化合物的小鼠肺肿瘤形成率降低66%有关(Khan,Afaq 2007)。

槲皮素

槲皮素是一种存在于某些水果、蔬菜和谷物中的类黄酮,具有显著的抗氧化和抗炎特性,被认为可以防止许多致癌化学物质引起的生物效应(Kamaraj 2007;Zheng 2012;Yang 2006;Jeong 2009;Saponara 2002)。

此外,流行病学研究发现,食用富含槲皮素的食物可以显著降低与吸烟相关的癌症风险。一项对35项研究的回顾发现,每天摄入最多含槲皮素食物的吸烟者患肺癌的风险比摄入最少的吸烟者低约34%(Woo 2013)。潜在的机制包括其清除自由基的能力,改变控制细胞生长和凋亡的信号转导途径,抑制激活致癌物的酶,同时诱导分解致癌物的酶(Lam 2010)。

维生素E

一项针对29?133名男性吸烟者的大型研究发现,那些血液中α-生育酚水平处于前20%分布的吸烟者患肺癌的风险比那些血液中α-生育酚水平处于后20%分布的吸烟者降低了19%(Woodson 1999)。另一项研究表明,维生素E(α-生育酚;放射治疗期间每日两次300毫克,随后连续3个月每日一次300毫克)与抗炎药己酮可可碱(Trental)联合使用(放射治疗期间每日三次400毫克,随后连续3个月每日一次400毫克)有助于降低辐射引起的毒性肺癌患者的治疗(Misirlioglu 2007)。同样的联合治疗也可能给晚期非小细胞肺癌患者带来生存优势;在一组接受放疗的患者中,使用己酮可可碱和α-生育酚将中位生存期提高到12个月,而对照组仅接受放疗,中位生存期为8个月(Misirlioglu 2006)。维生素E的γ-生育酚形式在肺癌动物模型中显示了令人印象深刻的结果。在这项研究中,一种富含γ-生育酚的生育酚混合物被加入到饮食中,在治疗50天后,小鼠的肿瘤生长减少了80%。此外,对肿瘤样本的显微镜分析显示,与对照组相比,富含γ-生育酚的混合物将肺癌细胞的死亡率提高了240%(Lambert 2009)。

值得注意的是,一些临床前证据表明,补充维生素E和/或N-乙酰半胱氨酸可能不适合有某种肺癌病史的人。2019年发表的一项动物模型研究发现,补充N-乙酰半胱氨酸和合成α-生育酚可促进遗传性肺癌风险升高小鼠的肺癌转移(通过增加K-Ras表达)。因此,出于谨慎的考虑,生命延长部建议肺癌患者在补充维生素E或N-乙酰半胱氨酸之前咨询医生,尤其是高剂量的维生素E或N-乙酰半胱氨酸。这对于K-Ras突变的人尤其重要,在大约30%的非小细胞肺癌患者中观察到这种突变。

锌是几种酶的重要组成部分,有助于维持正常的DNA复制。一项对1676名肺癌患者与同等数量的健康人进行比较的研究发现,饮食中锌摄入量最高(每天超过12毫克)的人患肺癌的风险降低43%(Mahabir 2006)。一项类似的研究发现风险降低了33%(Zhou, Park 2005)。另一项研究分析了肺癌患者和健康对照者的头发样本。与对照组相比,肺癌患者头发样本中的锌含量显著降低(Piccinini 1996)。

姜黄素

姜黄素是印度烹饪香料姜黄的有效成分。它已被广泛研究并显示具有相当的抗氧化和抗炎特性(Aggarwal 2013;Prasad 2014)。姜黄素由于其明显的化学预防特性也引起了癌症研究人员的兴趣(Gupta 2013)。许多研究已经在实验模型中研究了姜黄素的抗肺癌活性。姜黄素生物活性的一个有趣的方面是它能够抑制一种叫做Stat3的信号通路。Stat3已被证明在近50%的肺癌中具有活性,而姜黄素在临床前体外和动物实验中被证明是Stat3通路的有效抑制剂(Alexandrow 2012;Yang 2012)。其他证据表明,用姜黄素预处理肺癌细胞可以提高对化疗药物顺铂的敏感性。这被认为是通过下调一种名为Bcl-2的蛋白质来实现的,Bcl-2干扰细胞程序性死亡(Chanvorachote 2009)。临床前模型的其他证据表明姜黄素可能降低肺癌的侵袭潜能(Chen 2008)。

鱼油

鱼油富含omega-3脂肪酸二十二碳六烯酸(DHA)和二十碳五烯酸(EPA),在一项试验中显著提高了晚期NSCLC患者一线化疗的疗效。使用的鱼油剂量足以每天供应2.5克EPA和DHA。研究还发现,与标准护理相比,鱼油可使1年生存率提高约20%,尽管差异无统计学意义(Murphy 2011a)。在同一位主要研究人员的另一项研究中,每天补充2.2克EPA被证明有助于接受化疗的NSCLC患者比标准治疗更有效地保持体重和肌肉质量(Murphy 2011b)。一项实验性的实验室研究表明,肺癌细胞与EPA和DHA的剂量和时间依赖性孵育降低了癌细胞的活力。研究人员得出结论“……DHA和EPA抑制[肺癌]细胞增殖,诱导细胞凋亡和自噬,这可能为未来肺癌的治疗提供新的安全有效的选择”(Yao 2014)。

和厚朴酚

和厚朴酚来源于木兰树,是一种生物活性植物化学物质,可引发多种癌细胞系的凋亡并抑制其生长;它具有抗血管生成和抗致癌的特性(Bai 2003;Yang 2002)。和厚朴酚似乎也阻碍了NSCLC癌细胞的迁移;一项研究确定COX-2抑制可能是导致这种效应的机制(Singh 2013)。在肺癌动物模型中,和厚朴酚单独具有抗肿瘤活性,与顺铂合用时,抗肿瘤活性增强。进行这项研究的科学家们假设和厚朴酚的作用可归因于诱导细胞凋亡和抑制血管生成(Jiang 2008)。

舞茸

舞茸中含有一种叫做β-葡聚糖(特别是β-1,6葡聚糖)的多糖,这种多糖已被证明具有强大的免疫调节和抗癌特性(Kodama 2002)。 一些临床试验研究了舞茸提取物对癌症患者各种免疫学和细胞学(与细胞特性有关)的影响,包括一名乳腺癌患者和另一名患有各种癌症的患者(Deng 2009; Kodama 2002) 。 在后者的研究中,将舞茸提取物和整个舞茸粉给予36例II-IV期癌症患者,包括8例因副作用而中止化疗的肺癌患者。 用舞茸治疗后,在8位肺癌患者中有5位观察到癌症消退或症状改善(Kodama 2002)。

其他建议

一些其他的干预成分有一个良好的机制基础,对肺癌有潜在益处。

灵芝蘑菇。灵芝可能支持宿主的抗肿瘤免疫,并且由于其通常耐受性良好且无毒,因此可能是传统癌症治疗的一个有价值的辅助手段(Jin 2012)。

阿拉伯木聚糖。阿拉伯木聚糖是全谷物中膳食纤维的一种非淀粉成分,也可能有利于调节抗癌免疫(Lattimer 2010;Ghoneum 2011)。已经证明它能使癌细胞对化疗药物敏感并增强细胞凋亡(Ghoneum 2005;Gollapudi 2008)。

槲寄生。槲寄生制剂(如Iscador)已被证明可减少NSCLC患者化疗的副作用(Piao 2004;Bar Sela 2013)。尽管还需要更多的研究来确定槲寄生制剂是否能提高肺癌患者的生存率,但一些研究已经确定了他增强免疫力的机制(Gardin 2009;Huber 2011;Matthes 2010)。

静脉注射维生素C。静脉注射维生素C有时在综合医疗诊所被用作抗癌治疗。一些研究表明,这种方法可以减轻癌症患者的炎症反应,降低肿瘤标记物的水平,并且已经报道了一些静脉注射维生素C治疗后癌症缓解的病例(Mikirova 2012;Fritz 2014)。2014年发表的一篇系统综述得出结论,现有数据表明,静脉注射维生素C具有潜在的重要抗肿瘤活性以及良好的安全性。关于静脉注射维生素C对癌症患者的益处,很难得出确切结论的一个方面是,各试验在方法学方面缺乏一致性,尤其是剂量,从1克到200克以上,每周两到三次(Fritz 2014)。需要更多的研究来澄清这些差异,并确定在癌症情况下静脉注射维生素C治疗的最佳方法。


本文提出了许多问题,这些问题可能会随着新数据的出现而发生变化。 我们建议的营养或治疗方案均不用于确保治愈或预防任何疾病。Piping Rock健康研究院没有对参考资料中包含的数据进行独立验证,并明确声明对文献中的任何错误不承担任何责任


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